What was the fate of iberian jews

In like manner, the legacy of antiquity and the Middle East was transmitted via medieval Spain to the rest of Europe. The Jews of Spain, being multilingual, urban, and literate, filled an economic niche in the predominantly agricultural economy and also played an important role in the circulation of goods and ideas from the Arabic- to the Latin-speaking world by way of Hebrew and the Iberian vernaculars.

At the same time, they often found themselves caught in the middle between the two faiths and periodically suffered as victim of both. Andalusia held a special place in the dar el-Islam House of Islam as the sole Muslim outpost on European soil with the brief exception of Sicily.

Although Andalusia was linked to both the Christian and Muslim worlds, it was not fully part of either. It served more often as a borderland or battleground than as a meeting ground of the two competing civilizations. An anomaly in Europe, Spanish society defined itself in relation to the coexistence of the two rival civilizations. Most of the Jews of Spain lived predominantly under Muslim rule from until the late eleventh century, when the Almoravid dynasty began to implement anti-Jewish legislation.

They remained under Christian rule in an increasingly precarious position as the Middle Ages progressed until their expulsion in Over the centuries, the Jews often found themselves in the middle of the two powers, serving as mediator and translator between the two, fleeing from one realm to the other when necessary.

These historical and cultural factors assured that Sephardic Jews would develop as a unique branch of the Jewish people—multilingual, multitalented, and also deeply attached to a place where they lived for over a thousand years. In addition, Sephardic Jews reveled in the cultural stimulation of the Iberian civilization and were inspired by it to craft unique forms of self-expression. The medieval Hebrew poetic revolution, Sephardic explorations of philosophy and science, and their creation of monumental legal codes were all products of the co-existence of the three cultures in one territory.

He proceeded to establish a kingdom that would revive the splendor of Umayyad Damascus and rival the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad in opulence and power. Conversions to Islam multiplied and economic life quickened as talents, goods, and merchants flocked to the country from North Africa and even from parts of Byzantium. Travelers marveled at the variety and wealth of goods that overflowed in its markets and the elevated standard of living of its towns.

Commodities from the entire Mediterranean moved relatively freely on land and sea. In fact, Spain was scarcely a site of tolerance paradigmatic for modern pluralistic societies. Medieval Muslim, as well as Christian Spain, begrudgingly tolerated multiple religions.

Even at its most hospitable moments, medieval Spain was a land of inequality. Jews or Christians were tolerated in Muslim Spain as autonomous religious groups, but it was the toleration by the superior of the inferior, by the overlord of the underling.

In the Andalusian hierarchy of peoples and religions, the Arabs were highest in the social pyramid and Berber Muslims were second on the social scale. Converts to Islam of other ethnicities were deemed inferior. Christians were still lower down and slaves and Jews were at the bottom of the social order. The profile of male lineages in Portugal was drafted in a study comprising male samples from the 18 administrative districts of Portugal and a typical western European composition was demonstrated by the high frequencies of haplogroups R1b1a-M Possible Sephardic contributions to this genetic pool were also addressed in some reports Goncalves et al.

These samples were included in a larger group of self-defined Sephardic Jewish males not only from the Iberia Peninsula but also from other countries that received Jewish exiles after the decrees of expulsion in the 15th century. This group of self-defined Sephardic Jews was treated as a single group, therefore the inference of a genetic profile for the Portuguese Jews was not possible from the published data. In the following, we will focus on the results obtained exclusively for the 16 Jewish samples of Belmonte, obtained upon request to the authors Adams et al.

The genetic profile of the Portuguese Jewish and non-Jewish male lineages can be seen in Figure 2. The Y chromosome SNPs analyzed allowed the definition of just three different lineages in Belmonte Jews: eleven individuals were classified as Jf2. The SNPs typed allowed the discrimination of 10 different haplogroups and the analysis of the Y-STR loci revealed 41 different haplotypes. The most frequent haplogroups found were R1b1a-M, Jf2. However, the high haplogroup diversity combined with the high intra-haplogroup haplotypic diversity are extremely surprising, as they show exactly the opposite of what is expected, namely a deep genetic diversity loss.

Haplogroup R1b1a-M, representative of Western Europe, is the most common lineage found in the Portuguese general population In contrast, haplogroup Jf2. The same happened with haplogroup T-M70 Haplogroup R1b1a-M, emerges as the most frequent lineage in European individuals. Its distribution displays an increasing gradient moving from east to west Semino et al. Lineage R1b1a-M was associated with the expanding Neolithic movements from the Near East to the western fringe of Europe, although this is still a matter of debate Balaresque et al.

This haplogroup was absent in Jewish population studies until the report of Adams et al. A lower genetic distance between the Portuguese Jewish and non-Jewish R1b1a-M haplotypes than between these two samples and the one from Turkey was detected.

Thus, an important Western European R1b1a-M introgression into the Portuguese Sephardic Jews, most probably after their arrival in Iberia, is the most plausible scenario Nogueiro et al. Haplogroup Jf2. Lineage J2-M is more common and is widely spread over Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean basin Semino et al. This haplogroup is referred to as being predominant in diverse referenced Jewish populations Hammer et al.

While in Portugal it accounts for 3. The high frequencies of Jf2. The presence of the mutation M70 defines haplogroup T. Its origin is attributed to the Middle East Underhill et al. In Portugal it accounts for just 1. This lineage probably represents a relic of the original Sephardic male genetic pool, since it appears with similar frequencies in Israeli Sephardic Jews, but is quite rare in the Mediterranean coast and in Iberia. G-M was also detected in Belmonte 6. Adams et al. However, the estimated age for this lineage in Portugal Beleza et al.

The authors studied mtDNA variation patterns in a sample of 81 Arab and Jewish Israelis, including three individuals of Sephardic origin and a possible existence of group-specific mtDNA fragment patterns was speculated. Shortly after, in , a complementary work Tikochinski et al. Twenty-one distinct maternal linages were identified but no estimation of the introgression degree from the host population was performed.

Later Thomas et al. The work included a large sample of Moroccan Jews, a community that, as previously stated, received Iberian Jews after their expulsion. Similar results were found in later works Picornell et al. In the work of Picornell et al. These communities also presented a high proportions of mtDNA haplogroup H. Moreover, a remarkable west Mediterranean imprint among the Turkic Jewish sample was observed Behar et al. Mitochondrial haplogroup distributions of the Sephardic Jewish populations.

Jewish samples are from the works of Picornell et al. The detection of traces of Sephardic Jewish presence was addressed in several populations through the analysis of their possible contribution to the genetic background of the host populations. Such contribution was investigated in regions like the Portuguese north Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira and Azores Brehm et al.

This pattern of mtDNA diversity, showing haplogroups from the Middle East, was associated with female-specific founder events and has been described in various Jewish communities Thomas et al.

Such contribution was also analyzed in the New World populations, since Jewish migrations after the expulsion are well documented Barnavi et al.

One of the first works was produced by Carvajal-Carmona et al. The selection of such communities was done based on the occurrence of two mutations previously associated to genetic conditions described in different Jewish communities Ostrer, Complementary strategies have also been used to study this possible Sephardic contribution in a more recent work Bedford, The authors focused the analysis in a specific CR motif combination of certain variations initially named as T2e5, which can be currently located into the T2e1a1a1 clade, according to the updated mtDNA phylogeny in PhyloTree built 16 van Oven and Kayser, The complete mtDNA genome from a Turkish Sephardic individual belonging to this rare clade was also sequenced.

The authors observed the motif in twelve samples including Sephardic descendants from Turkey and Bulgaria, individuals from North American regions Northern Mexico and South USA, places known for receiving Spanish Conversos , and samples from Portugal and Brazil, also consistent with a speculated Sephardic ancestry. Further insights regarding the Sephardic signature inside T2e haplogroup and the genetic affinities of the T2e Northern Mexican samples were presented later Bedford et al.

The mitogenomes analyzed allowed to clarify the phylogeny of the Sephardic branches T2e1a and T2e1b. In parallel with the analysis of the male counterpart Y chromosome , the mtDNA variation in Portugal was used to investigate the maternal heritage in the current Portuguese genetic landscape.

Similar results were found in a later work Gonzalez et al. Specific areas of Portugal were analyzed in detail, due to their distinctive geographic and demographic characteristics: Azores and Madeira islands have a recent settlement history and played an important role in the modern slave trade from Africa to the New World, which is reflected in the significant presence of sub Saharan lineages Brehm et al.

The possible contribution of Sephardic lineages to the female Portuguese genetic pool was investigated as previously stated Brehm et al. Behar et al. The genetic profile of the Portuguese Jews and the Portuguese non-Jewish female lineages can be seen in Figure 4.

Mitochondrial haplogroup distributions of the Portuguese Sephardic Jews and non-Jewish population. The Belmonte community presented a very low diversity, with only two lineages detected, and all samples inside each haplogroup presented the same haplotype.

The distribution of the haplogroups is uneven, since one of them, HV0b haplogroup, stands out with a frequency of The expansion of the haplogroup HV0, including the haplogroup V, had been proposed to have an Iberian origin, after the last glacial maximum, and nowadays can be also found in North African populations. However, little is known about the distribution of the HV0b clade. This scenario is compatible with its origin in the Iberian Peninsula and with an early introgression into the Iberian Jewry gene pool from its host population, as suggested by Behar et al.

Although new complete mtDNA sequences are needed for a better understanding of this particular clade, the results available so far support the hypothesis that at least the HV0bG haplotype is a Sephardic Jewish founding lineage. Another interesting clade that deserves further attention is T2e1. This clade was described as one of the founder lineages of the Bulgarian Sephardic community Behar et al. A Near East origin for haplogroup T was proposed with a posterior expansion into Europe before the Neolithic.

The distribution of some sub-clades, including the T2e lineage, was associated with posterior European indigenous dispersion events Pala et al.

Moreover, the Braganca Jews present two further distinct coding region variants A and T. As stated by Bedford et al. Similar results regarding shared haplotypes between samples from Sephardic and Ashkenazi origin were found inside U2e1a1 sub-clade. This pattern of shared haplotypes between Sephardim and Ashkenazim samples, firstly described by Bedford et al.

Further genetic data will help to clarify this issue, but it is possible to add non-genetic evidence for the second hypothesis, since marriages between members of the two communities have been recorded Roth, ; Elvira, , the descendants having been assimilated into the Ashkenazi community. In conclusion, the demographic processes underlying the genetic pool of the Portuguese Crypto-Jews descendants studied so far, are much more complex than would be expected under the classical model of extreme inbreeding and drift, with consequent loss of genetic diversity.

Notwithstanding this difference, both groups display a genetic pool clearly showing contributions of European and Near Eastern lineages, in accordance with a significant persistence of a Jewish heritage, translated in a conscience of belonging to a distinctive community.

This ancestry was detected within both male and female lineages, indicating that introgression from and admixture with the host population does seem to have been significantly gender biased. It remains to be explained how this resistance to genetic erosion, as expected in endogamous, small sized populations, was achieved, that is to say, what mating strategies were undertaken by these communities which ensured a steady gene flow between them, counteracting the expected inbreeding.

New data from recombining genetic markers in the line of Behar et al. At any rate, the DNA evidence gathered so far adds a new facet to the already recognized astonishing cultural resistance of these communities: not only they have kept a sense of belonging throughout centuries of persecution but they also succeeded in maintaining a genetic heritage of their own.

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Adams, S. The genetic legacy of religious diversity and intolerance: paternal lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula. Alcalay, R. JAMA Neurol. Arroyo-Pardo, E. Santos and M. Lima Kerala: Research Signpost , — Google Scholar.

Atzmon, G. Azevedo, E. Bacon, I. The Historical Atlas of Judaism. London: Chartwell Books. Balaresque, P. A predominantly neolithic origin for European paternal lineages. PLoS Biol. Barnavi, E.

London: Hutchinson. Bauchet, M. Measuring European population stratification with microarray genotype data. Bedford, F. Sephardic signature in haplogroup T mitochondrial DNA. Behar, D. The push towards persecution in Spain did not end with the expulsion of Jewish and Islamic people.

Spain turned on its own citizens and established the Inquisition and a system of castes — old and new Christians — that furthered divided its population. How different are these issues from those we see highlighted in the everyday news of our own times? Today we see powerful political and economic majorities trying to strengthen their weakening influence by ostracizing those with less power here in the United States, as well as in the rest of the world.

Institutionalized racism, forced assimilation and exile are weapons that are also used today against those with less political power. Let us not forget, then, that by casting our eyes towards the past and examining the consequences of excluding minorities, we have the opportunity to learn how to better deal with our present.

Perhaps we can even learn how to build a better future for all. She was born in Ecuador and moved to the United States with her family at the age of sixteen. Her research focuses on identity and the building of textual authority in the literary works of Jewish, Converso and Morisco writers of late medieval and early-modern Iberia. Her latest research focuses on the works of Shem Tov of Carrion, a medieval poet and rabbi. When not reading poetry, you can find Vivian at work in her garden or spending time with her family.

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